A Girl's Garden By Robert Frost

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Natalie Boyle

Dr. Ngenge

English 150

September , 00




The Elements of “A Girl’s Garden”

In “A Girl’s Garden” by Robert Frost, the theme expressed is the unique pleasure of a rural childhood, as well as the girl’s youthful exuberance about the garden she grew. The speaker is a neighbor of the girl, who is now an adult woman living in town. The speaker tells the story, attempting to convey the importance of the garden to the adult woman because of the joy she still takes in reminiscing about her experiences, regardless of the perceived success of her efforts. This is achieved by excellent use of tone, rhythm, and imagery.

The tone of the poem is consistently light and pleasant. From the beginning the girl remembers the experience fondly, as shown in lines -4 “likes to tell how one spring when she was a girl on the farm, she did a childlike thing.” The poem goes on to describe how the young girl asked her father for a garden of her own. The father’s response of “Why not?” and decision to give her a small, walled-off piece of useless land, as well as his comments in lines 1-16 suggests that he was humoring her because he knew it would be quite an undertaking. In lines 7 � 40 “her crop was a miscellany when all was said and done, a little bit of everything, a great deal of none”, the text at first seems to change tones. Yet the speaker ends the poem by reiterating the woman’s pleasure of telling the story of when she was a “farmer”. When taken into context with the rest of the poem, the tone has not changed. Regardless of the outcome, the theme is that the value was in

the learning experience and the pleasure the woman has even as an adult. The poem is mild-mannered and seeks to take the reader away from their daily life, as opposed to requiring heavy philosophic or morbid contemplations.

The poem is very rhythmic and melodic. It follows a prescribed pattern with every second and fourth lines rhyming. Each section is further divided into four line stanzas, with a similar amount of syllables in each line. The stanzas are not precisely identical, but close enough to allow a musical flow. The speaker reminds us of the age of the child using rhythm by describing her embarrassment at carting a wheelbarrow of manure down the road, which when hearing someone come caused her to run from “her not-nice load” and asking everyone for seed, resulting in her planting “one of all things but weed.” The rhythm continues to support the theme, as well as the tone. By following a clean, simple, and harmonious pattern it continues to evoke a sense of childhood reminiscence and does not obscure the message by being overly complicated.

Throughout the text, the imagery is brilliant, enabling one to visualize the setting, smell the country air, and empathize with the girl. In lines -10 “… an idle bit of walled-off ground where a shop had stood”, the speaker presents a clear image of the location of the garden. Other memorable passages refer to her pushing a wheelbarrow of dung, and planting “begged seed” ranging from potatoes, radishes, lettuce, peas, tomatoes, beets, beans, pumpkin, corn, and even fruit trees on her little patch of land. The word choice is descriptive, but not overly complicated, remaining in adherence to the tone and other

elements. This allows for the utmost impact possible because by allowing the reader to easily visualize what is happening, the events become much more interesting and creates feelings of empathy and delight at the girl’s progress throughout the poem.

Several factors are combined in the creation of a poem; among these are word choice, rhythm, tone, and imagery. These elements may be considered separately. However, for an optimum reading experience every aspect should blend together and complement the others carefully. Just as an artist chooses her palette or a chef seasons his recipes, the poet must consider each individual aspect and how it will enhance the whole poem. “A Girl’s Garden” by Robert Frost is a perfect example of how this is done effectively. The rhythm is steady and melodic, rather than contrived. The words chosen are thoughtfully put together in a way that evokes rich images, without becoming wordy or convoluted. The result is a poem that effortlessly accomplishes the simple purpose of telling a story, which is why “A Girl’s Garden” is still a timeless pleasure for readers and an inspiration to writers eighty-five years after later.



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Strategic Planning

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MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING ESSAY 18/ The development of a strategic plan is essential to the achievement of organisational goals. Discuss. The development of a strategic plan is an essential part of strategic management accounting. If carried out to its full credibility the organisation will achieve its goals. It is important to note that the strategic plan is set for long term planning, as much as -5 years. It has been established that a strategic plan requires the specification of objectives distinguished between three key elements, forming a hierarchy the mission of an organisation, corporate objectives and unit objectives. These objectives are the first stage of the strategic plan, before the organisation has to ask, and answer, three simple but vital questions; 1) Where are we now? ) Where do we want to be? (long term) ) How are we going to get there? This is where we bring analysis such as SWOT analysis, the Boston matrix, the value chain and the Ansoff matrix into the plan. Corporate objectives relate to the organisation as a whole. They are expressed in financial terms, such as desired profit or sales levels, return on capital employed (ROCE), rates of growth or market share, and are normally measurable in some way. Formulated by members of the board, or directors to be handed down to senior management. United Biscuits corporate objectives in their annual report of 185 were; The most important objective remains the achievement of a minimum return of 0% on average capital employees, with a target return of 5%. Unit objectives relate to the specific objectives of individual units within the organisation, such as a division or one company within a holding company. The unit objectives for costain group plc in their annual report of 186 were; In the UK costain Homes is budgeted to sell 500 homes in 187, - a figure that will put it among the top ten house builders. Before the corporate and unit objectives are incorporated one must start with the mission, and the basic concepts which involve vision statement, mission statement, goals and objectives. The first thing is to establish the long-term strategic aims of the organisation, otherwise known as corporate planning. A vision statement would be drawn up first and is simply a vague sentence expressing the positive effect it will have on society and is often used to say how the world will become a better place due to the existence of the proposal(s). This is often linked with the mission statement, and some companies may even omit the vision and focus only on the mission. This emphasis more on the specific role that the organisation plans. It describes in very general terms the broad purpose and reason for its existence, the nature of the business(es) it is in, and the customers it seeks to serve and satisfy over the long run. The mission statement for international company Virgin is very simple, very brief but informative as to what they wanted to put across, and is simply; The directors aim to develop virgin into the leading British international media and entertainment group.4 Equally important are the goals and objectives. Firstly the organisational goals, the aims that the company strives to incorporate and achieve. These are a more detailed breakdown of what the mission states. They will be defined for different groups of shareholders. As one would expect, organisational goals are established for shorter time frames and are of unquantified sources. Goals can be a little ambiguous, they can be expressed in simple terms, for example, to make a profit, or in a wider area, to increase productivity. Therefore such goals can be taken for granted and so tell us little about the emphasis placed on the various activities of the organisation in meeting those goals. On the other hand one can say how vitally important they are. They provide a basis for planning and management control, guidelines for decision making and justification for the actions taken. The goals that the company set out in their report will be different to that received by the individuals, groups or departments of that same company. The goals will help to develop commitment of these people and so focuses attention on purposeful behaviour providing a basis for motivation and rewards. Fig 1 FORMAL GOALS Personal goals of managers INFORMAL Perceived goals of officially stated GOALS the organisation organisation goals Personal goals of other members of the organisation the reason and purpose of the organisation Figure 1 shows the different types of informal goals that lead to the overall formal goals of the organisation. Inter-linked with the organisational goals are the objectives. These can be interpreted as being the same as goals, but they do differ. The goals are the basis for the objectives and are quantified roles of the organisation. They set out more specifically the goals, the aims to be achieved and the desired end-results. As with the goals, the objectives too will be broken down into different sections within the company. The corporate objectives also need to be broken down into compatible and functional objectives, so as all departments can contribute their part in maintaining the overall specifications. Large companies would have to subdivide the organisation as a whole to make there corporate mission more appropriate. This can be achieved by splitting into functional areas or geographical areas, where the managers are made responsible for all of the functions carried out within their region. The most logical and relevant divisions for strategic planning purposes are called strategic planning units - (Subs). Subs are normally defined as being divisions of an organisation where the managers have control over their own resources and discretion over the deployment of these resources within specified boundaries, - their own mission statement and set of goals. The role of corporate strategic planning in this case is to define the overall corporate values and guiding business principles and to set out the limits of the business, which can be undertaken by the subsidiary units. Here we recall the three simple but vital questions mentioned earlier; Where are we now? Where do we want to be? How do we get there? To help us we start to incorporate analysis and other useful techniques. We start with the SWOT analysis, otherwise termed WOTS UP, which focuses on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the organisation. By taking into account the constraints and opportunities, one can take a look at previous performance, competitors and the rest of the industry, in relation to the holders own company, and then of course one can do SWOT analysis; Fig INTERNAL STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES EXTERNAL OPPURTUNITY THREATS The strengths and weaknesses refer to the internal aspects of the organisation, comparing to the competition and the market place, - what the company is relatively good and bad at doing. The opportunity and threats relate to the external environment factors and the inter-relationship they have. Strengths are those positive aspects or competencies, which provide a significant, market advantage, where the organisation can build upon. This is simply to tell the present market position, size, structure, managerial expertise, physical or financial resources, staffing and skill, image and reputation and lastly the situation (for channel ports and motorways). Weaknesses are obviously the negative aspects in the present competencies or resources of the organisation. Its image or reputation limiting its effectiveness which need to be corrected to minimise the effects. Certain examples of weaknesses could be operating within a particular narrow market, limited accommodation or outdated equipment, high proportion of fixed costs, high level of customer complaints, poor marketing skills or a shortage of key managerial staff. Opportunities are favourable conditions and usually arise from the nature of changes in the external environment. Although the organisation needs to be responsive to the changes, it also has to be sensitive to the problems of business strategy. The changes being, new markets, technology advances, improved economic factors or failure of competitors. The opportunities offer the organisation the potential to develop existing products, facilities or services. Threats, the last in the SWOT analysis matrix. These are the opposite to opportunities, referring to unfavourable situations arising from external environment developments that are likely to endanger the operations and effectiveness of the organisation. One would include changes in legislation, the introduction of a radically new product by competitors, changing social conditions and the actions of pressure groups. The organisation has to be responsive to changes that have already occurred, and therefore plan for anticipated significant changes in the environment, being well prepared for such demands. One has to consider four fundamental issues that are addressed with SWOT analysis. Firstly, financial performance - allowing one to asses the current performance. Secondly, competitiveness - here it is vital to consider the non-financial factors which allow a company to resist competitive pressure, applying it successfully to others. Market input is next, and lastly external environment - these last two aim to highlight external factors, for example, potential constraints, via analysis of the external environment. This must take into account all relevant external environment factors. Once the organisation has completed the SWOT analysis, the question of where they to be in -5 years arises. To help with answering this the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) portfolio matrix will be introduced. This matrix identifies greater strengths and weaknesses by producing, again, four different types of businesses (or products), Dogs, Question marks (or Wild cats), Stars and Cash cows, and is shown in the following Boston Square; Fig Market growth and cash input High STAR ? Low FUNDS CASH COW DOG High Low Market share and cash generation The Boston square is based on a product life cycle and the coincidence of high market share with high profitability; Fig 4 Product Life Cycle question star cash dog mark cow The product life cycle assumes that the cost a unit drops as the volume of units produced increases as a result of improvements in the production process and economies of scale. A typical product developed from concept to market acceptance, through a period of high demand and eventual market decline. Of course not all products follow the same cycle, some never reach the market, and others have a different time scale at each stage of the cycle. Converting the four stages of the product into matrix form produces the above Boston square, giving four different characteristics, specifically chosen. The stars are those products with the best profit and potential, requiring hefty investment to become established products, which generate cash with minimum investment. The question marks, otherwise known as wild cats, are those products requiring a high investment for little return. Market growth is high whilst market share is low, initially funded by income from cash cows. The dogs are those obsolescent products which no longer merit further investment as the market share has been eroded by new developments or fashions. The whole idea of the Boston square model is to highlight that the strategic management of a product, or even a whole industry, needs to focus beyond internal factors to consider market pressures. It also stresses the need to re-invest income to provide long term sources of revenue. It is essential that four strategies emerge from this matrix. Firstly, to build - increase market share, turning question marks into stars. Secondly, hold - preserve market share, ensuring cash cows remain cash cows. Thirdly, harvest- increase short-term cash flow by using cash cows to fund other business products. Lastly to divest - eliminate those businesses whose use of resources is inefficient. It is also possible to use a different type of analysis, namely Porters five-part model, of the existing competitive position. The five parts are established as 1) buyer power, ) supplier power, ) entry opportunity, 4) substitute possibilities, 5) competitor rivalry. These five factors determine how attractive an area of business will be to a company. Fig 5 Porters five factors affecting current level of competition can also be successfully related to his later technique - the value chain, which comes under our third question - How are we going to get there? The value chain looks at the total value added by the industry and by the particular organisation within that industry. The objective of the value chain analysis is to highlight the objectives which contribute most significantly to the total value added and to develop strategies to improve on, or defend the current share of that value added which is gained by the organisation. Fig 6 The value chain Suppliers Organisation Customers Strategy and administration Research and development Design Production Marketing Distribution Customer service According to this concept every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver and support its product. Another development by porter in 180, is that competitive strategy splits successful strategies into three broad categories; Fig 7 Porters model of generic strategies STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE Low cost position Uniqueness perceived by customers STRATEGIC TARGETS Industry niche Overall cost Leadership Differentiation Particular segment only Focus To be successful across its chosen industry the organisation must either be able to supply the product from the lowest cost case in the industry or be able to command a higher price in the market by differentiating its product. It may not be positive to sustain either of these strategies across the whole industry and so it adopts its third strategic category by focusing on particular segments of the industry where it can command a sustainable competitive advantage. The last part of the corporate planning is the Ansoff product/market matrix. Competitive strategies should be the most precise level of strategic planning since they relate to actions regarding products and markets which are to be implemented to achieve the most specific objectives of the organisation. The organisation here could acquire or develop new products to sell its existing customers, mapped out in the Ansoff matrix. Fig 8 Ansoff matrix PRODUCTS Existing New MARKETS Existing Market Penetration strategy Product development strategy New Market development strategy Diversification The Ansoff matrix indicates the appropriate types of strategies which should be implemented depending on which box the organisation decides to select as its preferred method of growth. The fourth alternative that this matrix suggests is new products for new customers, otherwise described as a diversification strategy or questionable strategy, because it doesnt build on any obvious existing competitive advantage of the business. The other three strategies are examined by their relevant strengths and weaknesses. From all of the analysis shown, and followed with the full capabilities of management in achieving what was set out, one would be able to achieve the original organisation goals. It is possible to see that the development of such a strategic plan, through corporate planning, is a lenghty but well worthwhile for the company. We should note that strategic planning and strategic management accounting has become a vital part of a companies future.



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Issey Miyake

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ISSEY MIYAKE

I observe that Iseey Miyake the Japanese fashion designer desires not so much to transgress boundaries in his clothing design as to maintain them as transparent walls.

An Issey Miyake design is neither wholly Eastern nor Western; his garments seem to simultaneously inhabit different temporal and geographic spaces. A piece (for Miyake’s clothing begs one to refer to them as art pieces) may look futuristic, but it is also rooted in the ancient feudal tradition of Japan’s samurai warriors.

Born in Hiroshima in 18, Miyake was seven years old in August 145, when his mother, suffered serious burns during U.S atomic bombing, lived another four years after the attack. The American occupation of Japan gave Miyake a first-hand view of what the west had to offer � Marilyn Monroe, Mickey Mouse, TV, Frozen Diners � and is surely a source of Miyake’s East-meets-West aesthetic.




In 15 Miyake enrolled as a graphic arts student at Tokyo’s prestigious Tama Art University. His true desire, however was to study fashion design, and in 165 he went to Paris, where he studied at Ecole de la Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne, and learned the ropes under French couturiers Guy Laroche and Hubert de Givenchy.

At the Miyake design studio, a kind of laboratory the designer opened in Tokyo in 170, he researched fabrics and design techniques, producing innovations like moulded plastic bustiers and clothes made out of oilcloth. Using a 5th century Japanese peasant technique to distress hemp like material, Miyake was able to create full bodied flowing forms that still described the body’s natural contours.

Miyake also pioneered a polyester jersey fabric, which, cut in squares and other geometric forms, enveloped the body in what he like to call a “ second skin”.

Issey Miyake continued his radical design philosophy into the 80s but his clothes became more practical. He opened the “Plantation” store in Paris in 181, selling affordable clothes in natural fibres designed for “real living”. The pleating that has become his signature look first surfaced in the 0s. During this period Issey Miyake designed the official pleated jackets worn by the Lithuanian Olympic team at 1 Barcelona Olympics and produced the “Pleats Please” spring and summer collection in 14.

In Issey Miyake’s three decades in design, he has worked at the intersection of art and fashion, nature and technology, innovation and tradition and notably, East and West.

It may have been one of the fashion world’s more bizarre recent happenings. On a cold evening in Paris, several hundred people gathered on the lawn of the Cartier foundation art gallery, where they watched Chinese artist Cai Guo_Qiang sprinkle gunpowder over an assortment of dresses, trousers and t-shirts created by Issey Miyake. Cai then lit a fuse, and it all exploded like a string of firecrackers. The clothes riddled with holes and burn stains, were then put on display in the Cartier gallery along with other examples of Miyake’s collaborative efforts with artists.

In Issey Miyake’s own words “I had chosen one idea “express energy”. Cai proposed to burn a design of a dragon on my pleats please, with gunpowder. In China, the dragon is a symbol of energy, and gunpowder is energy.

I made the clothes according to how Cai was going to use them. He laid 65 items on the floor, in the shape of a dragon. Then he put gunpowder on them, covered the gunpowder with cardboard stencils also in the shape of a dragon. He lit the fuse at the end of a trail of 65 garments. In or seconds you could see the result, each piece of clothing has a mark of a dragon.

“ I have always considered my job as a new way of making things. Creating new fabrics or coming up with a new technique or process, going forward, looking for new possibilities.”

Issey Miyake does not tend to go back in time or history to him the weight of the fabric on the body makes the shaped. He has never used crinoline or corsets or padding to force shapes.

Issey Miyake tends to have a different expression and process, and tends to have a different way of looking at and understanding clothes. He also does not seem to be constricted by the traditional rules of French couture. He also seems not to concern himself with current trends.

He seem to be more detached from the normal concept of clothes, which allows him not to be confined by current trends and colours which so often dictate a designers collection, also allowing him to fully exploit the fabric and the design possibilities.

When asked is fashion and art? Issey Miyake replied “No I’m disturbed when people call me an artist. When I make something it’s only half finished. When people use it for years and years then its finished. The pleasure comes when people use my clothes. I may work with artists, but what I do is make things to be used, not looked at, like a picture or sculpture. You can not use art.”



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Kitchen Made Pies

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Kitchen Made Pies has clearly been struggling over the past four years. Is this the beginning of the end or is there some hope left for Paul Dubicki? He obviously has a lot going for him right now (181). The economy has taken a turn for the worse. Fresh pie sales are slowing due to the rising popularity of in-store bakeries. They have also had credit problems with one of their top clients. However, I feel the biggest problem of KMP is their inability to control labor costs. Sales have actually been steady during these last four losing years. It has been their increased costs that have got them in trouble as of late. Can they improve their production techniques in order to increase efficiency and reduce costs?

Mr .Dubicki is intent on offering a wide range of pies. The trouble with this is the ridiculous amount of downtime the facility has every time they need to change the size or flavor on the machine. They spend 15 �0 minutes each time they change sizes. They lose another 4-5 minutes each time they switch flavors. This amounts to 16 minutes a day where nothing is being produced. The labor workers are still working and getting paid. The company just has nothing to show for it.

Mr. Dubicki’s biggest concern with purchasing a more efficient machine is obviously the up front cost of $150,000. The company is currently low on cash and is also having trouble getting credit from their bank. Their biggest customer, Dean’s Distributing (40% of sales) is also historically late with payments. The last thing on his mind is spending more on a company that is consistently losing money.

Sometimes you need to take a step back in order to move forward. Mr. Dubicki sees the short term costs of a new machine, but fails to see the long-term profits this move could bring. A more efficient machine would drastically reduce the hours needed for labor workers. They could produce the same number of pies with as many as 707 fewer hours worked per year. This would result in savings of $115, per year. The firm could simply lay off nine workers and still produce the same number pies.




Mr. Dubicki clearly has to do something fast. He seems to believe this problem will just go away. He makes way too many assumptions with little or no research to back it up. He is also very stubborn about changing the company’s ways. He believed customers would prefer fresh pies when in actuality these sold best through in-store bakeries. He also focused on high prices for high quality when he knew for a fact that customers were price sensitive. His biggest blunder I feel is ignoring the purchase of a more efficient machine. He guesses it would not work, but does not even bother to do a cost analysis.

The purchase of a new machine would be my number one priority. I suggest purchasing the machine and financing it over five to ten years if possible. This would lower the expenses to $0,000-$5,000 per year. This would more than be offset by the $115, they save in wages. This would have turned most of their losing years into profitable ones and cut a big chunk out of their 181 losses.

Mr. Dubicki keeps talking about volume. Volume is the key to success. I feel this approach is dead wrong. First of all he owns a mid-size company. This means he has neither the delivery capabilities of a large firm nor the local market advantage of a small firm. There has also been a drastic decrease of bakery sales (-1% in 181) in grocery stores. My biggest concern here is the company’s sales over the past 7 years. There is minimal change from year to year. In 175 and 176, the two most profitable years (ave. sales - $1,5,000), they actually sold less than in their worst year of 181 ($1,65,000).

The pie market clearly seems to be getting tougher. KMP has not been able to increase sales over the past seven years and they are actually considering dropping Dean’s Distributing (40% of sales). I feel this is one of those situations where you should not get too greedy. There is a limited market right now and it is only getting worse. I say make the best of what you have. There is no reason to believe due to past company history and the future of the industry that they can make money by selling more. They should go the other route and maximize profits by minimizing expenses. That would be my first step. They need to stop the bleeding and start to turn things around. Then they can worry about producing more pies and working on some kind of promotional campaign. If KMP can do this they may have a chance to get back to profitability.

181 Admin Cost assumptions

$4,100 - Paul Dubicki � owner

$5,000 - B. Britt � prod. Manager

$0,000 - C. Watson � off manager

$0,000 - L. Beard � sales manager

$84,000 - 6 office workers @ $14,000

$18,100

181 Labor Cost assumptions

7 Labor workers = 0 production + 1 driver + 6 maintenance (est)

= 81% production � 1% non production

$45,00 � actual labor costs

6,46 hours worked - $45,00 / $7.5 hr.

1688 hours per worker - 6,46 hours / 7 workers

5. hours per week - 1688 hours / 47 weeks

7. hours per day - 5. hours / 5 days

$5.0 - 7. hours worked x $7.5 / hour � ave daily pay

$1,45 / day - $45,00 / 5 weeks / 6 days = cost of running plant per day

7.8 workers per shift - $145 / 5.0 = # of workers per day

.5 production workers - 7.8 total workers .81

Downtime of Current Machinery

5 minutes - size changes (4in-8in-in) 17.5 mins per change

101 minutes - .5 ingredient changes 4.5 mins per change

16 minutes per day

1.6 hours per week

707 hours per year - # of hours that no pies are being made

New Machine (perfect machine � no downtime)

Cost = $150,000

Savings = $115, -- 707 hrs .5 production workers $7.5/hr

B/E = 1. years

New Machine (good-cuts down time by two-thirds)

Savings = $76,886 $115, (perfect) /

B/E = 1.5 years



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Eco-friendly architecture

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Recycled materials are being used in architecture more and more, so why is it that the use of new construction materials continue to dominate the field of building construction? What is the emphasis being placed on the material being taught and how does the buildings that students are being taught in effects their way of thinking?

Recycled materials in construction can help reserve materials around the world. If the common architecture student knows this, why do they continue to design buildings with new materials? Architecture students learn about recycled materials and how to use them, but there is no emphasis on the importance of recycled materials. Teachers are not instilling the long range intelligence of knowing that recycled materials help preserve the earth. The use of new materials can be more costly than recycled materials in the long run. “Students hear about global responsibility while being educated in institutions that often spend their budgets and invest their endowments in the most irresponsible things” (Orr 14). Instructor emphasis cannot be the only thing changing the thought process of students, but also the buildings they learn in and their surroundings.

Architecture students learn how to use the materials they build with in a class room that is not built with the earth in mind and therefore the student learns that “the environmental and energy costs of building do not matter much” (Orr 11). Eco-friendly design is not usually the focus of the architect and the earth suffers because of it. The design of a building could have a big effect on the way the student learns. “We have assumed, wrongly I think, that learning takes place in buildings, but that none occurs as a result of how they are designed, or by whom, how they are constructed and from what materials, how they fit their location and how well they operate” (Orr 11).

Eco-friendly architecture is more than a way to preserve the earth it makes a statement to the community about the type of person you are and can influence the world around you. “The architectural process is an opportunity to learn something about the relationship between ecology and economics” (Orr 114). A good educational environment is a great way to promote student learning. Architectural involvement along with instructor emphasis on the importance of the material can change society for the better.






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Advanced Business Policy, OD and ADR

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Abstract

This paper addresses the importance of Advanced Business Policy in organization development through establishment of sound arbitration, negotiation and mediation practice. It introduces what are the relevant advanced business policies such as

Marketing/sales policies,

Personnel policies,




Production and Purchasing policies and

Financial policies.

It then focuses on leadership which is very vital in bringing about Organization Development by setting up sound Business Policies that assist the Organization to grow up profitably and create a very good working environment within the Organization.

Finally this paper dwells on Personnel policies specifically policies relating to Employee services and Industrial relation that are relevant in bringing harmony in the Organization, it goes further to discuss policies for Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) namely Arbitration, Mediation and Negotiation. The paper finally gives the findings and conclusion regarding how these policies can develop an organization and therefore create a suitable working condition.

CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION

1.1. What is business Policy?

Business Policies contain two terms - Business and Policy. Business itself has two meanings. One in macro sense and another in micro sense. Macro business means business relating to the economy as a whole. Business means economic activity relating to production, distribution etc. Business Policy may be of two types; one is general policy, which is adopted by all. Beyond this there are specific advanced policy, which is applicable in any business unit according to its suitability.

1.. Types of business policies

Marketing/Sales Policies

Marketing Policies enables the organization to understand and solves the following

§ Understanding the Customer and Creating Goods and Services that Satisfy

§ Developing Quality Products at the Right Price

§ Using Integrated Marketing Communications to Promote Products

§ Using the Internet for Business Success

§ Buying Trouble Ethics Issues in Purchasing

§ Marketplace Ethics Issues in Sales and Marketing

a. Pricing policies

Pricing is the most important aspect of managerial decision-making. Hence having clear pricing policies is important.

b. Product policies

These are policies that answer the question of whether to Specialize or diversify on a product.

c. Customer care policies

These policies answers the questions of who are the consumer, what is the most efficient and strategic size of the customers to be served by the company, what are the channel of distribution to be adopted and what location should be served by the company for the sale of its product.

d. Sales promotion policies

These are policies that address sales appeal, how advertising is to be utilized for sales promotion of the product and what role personal solicitation would play.

Production and Purchasing Policies

These are policies that addresses the following

a. What is the extent to which vertical integration is strategic?

b. What are the general processes to be used in production

c. Setting total capacity and facility balance

d. Providing basic guides for maintenance and replacement

e. Services and supplies-questions revolving make-or-buy decisions

f. From which vendor purchases should be made

g. Correlating purchasing production and sales

h. Can a limited number of vendors supply the variety of product required

Personnel Policies

These are personnel policies that outline the procedures for selection and training of personnel, understanding Labor-Management Relations, labor Relations in a Global Context and Mediation of a Commercial Dispute.

These policies can be divided into three categories

a. Selection and Training

These are policies that govern selection and training of personnel in organization. The process of selection goes on almost continuously with hiring of new employees, selection of employees for promotion and even problem of discharging employees.

b. Employee services and Industrial relation

This relates with policies that create a suitable working conditions for employee such as providing social and recreational facilities to employees, provide protection to employee against financial risks. Further more these policies outline the relation of the organization vis a vis the Trade union in terms of its support, scope of bargaining and recourse to outside agencies in relation to mediation, negotiation and arbitration.

c. Compensation and Arrangements for Work

These are policies that outline the amount of compensation one is entitle to and the method of payment of these compensations. It includes policies outlining hours of work, Vacations and working conditions.

Financial Policies

a. Uses of Capital

Clear policies would stipulate the uses of Capital

b. Sources of Capital

Policies will spell out what are the sources of Capital whether from owners, Long-term creditors or short-term creditors.

c. Protection of Capital and Distribution of Earnings.

These are policies that protect the business against risks such as reduction of hazards, insurance, hedging and calculation of profits. These policies include how to plow back profits, distributions of dividends, retaining of earning.

CHAPTER TWO LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

.1 Leadership

Leadership is about influencing others to follow. It is first and foremost about providing service.

Good leaders are good learners who learn by

· Seeing things differently

· Then thinking about things differently

· Then doing things differently

· And finally reflecting on their actions

According to Bateman Snell (B.Snell 1) a leader is one who influences others to attain goals. The greater the number of followers, the greater the influence. A good leader will make sure that the organization has good policies and whatever decisions he makes will be in accordance to the organizations policies. At is expected that a good leader will follow the set up policies in solving disputes in the organization.

. Organizational Development

Organizational development is concerned with the planning and implementation of programmes designed to enhance effectiveness with which an organization functions and responds to change. Overall, the aim is to adopt a planned and coherent approach to improving organizational effectiveness. An effective organization can be defined broadly as one that achieves its purpose by meeting the wants and needs of its stakeholders, matching its resources to opportunities, adapting flexibly to environmental changers and creating a culture that promotes commitment, creativity, shared values and mutual trust.

Organization Development (OD) is therefore a planned systematic process in which applied behavioral science principles and practices are introduced into an ongoing organization towards the goals of effecting organizational improvement, greater organizational competence, and greater organizational effectiveness. The focus is on organizations and their improvement or, to put it in another way, total systems change. The orientation is on action - achieving desired results as a result of planned activities. Tools that facilitate the Organization Development are advanced business policies such as policies relating to Industrial Relation/Employee relation. These are policies that assist the organization in prevention and solving of Industrial disputes and hence create favorable working condition for the Organization Development and Prosperity.

CHAPTER THREE INDUSTRIAL RELATION/ EMPLOYEE RELATION

According to Michael Armstrong (M.Armstrong 000) four approaches to employee relation’s policies have been identified by Industrial Relations Services (14)

Adversarial the organization decides what it wants to do, and employees are expected to fit in. Employees only exercise power by refusing to cooperate.

Traditional a good day-to-day working relationship but management proposes and the workforce reacts through its elected representatives.

Partnership the organization involves employees in the drawing up and execution of organization policies, but retains the right to manage.

Power sharing employees are involved in both day-to-day and strategic decision making.

Adversarial approaches are much less common than in the 160’s and 170’s. The traditional approach is still the most typical but more interest is being express in partnership, power sharing is rare.

.1 Nature and purpose of employee relation’s policies

Against the background of a preference for one of the four approaches listed above, employee relations policies express the philosophy of the organization on what sort of relationships between management and employees and their unions are wanted, and how they should be handled. A partnership policy will aim to develop and maintain a positive, productive, cooperative and trusting climate of employee relations.

When they are articulated, policies provide guidelines for action on employee relation’s issues and can help to ensure that these issues are dealt with consistently. They provide the basis for defining management’s intentions (its employee relations strategy) on key matters such as union recognition and collective bargaining.

The areas covered by employees’ relations’ policies are

-Trade union recognition- whether trade unions should be recognized or de-recognized, which union or unions the organization would prefer to deal with,

And whether or not it is desirable to recognize only one union for collective bargaining and /or employee representational purposes;

1. Collective bargaining

The extent to which it should be centralized or decentralized and the scope of areas to covered by collective bargaining;

. Employee relations procedures

The nature and scope of procedures for redundancy, grievance handling and discipline;

. Participation and involvement

The extent to which the organization is prepared to give employees a voice on matters that concern them;

4. Partnership

The extent to which a partnership approach is thought to be desirable;

5. The employment relationship

The extent to which terms and conditions of employment should be governed by collective agreements or based on individual contracts of employment (i.e. collectivism versus individualism);

6. Harmonization of terms and conditions of employment for staff and manual workers; Harmonization is the process of introducing the same conditions of employment for all employees. It is distinguished by Roberts (10) from single status and staff status as follows

7. Single status is the removal of differences in basic conditions of employment to give all employees equal status. Some organizations take this further by putting all employees into the same pay and grading structure.

8. Staff status is a process whereby manual and craft employees gradually receive staff terms and conditions of employment, usually upon reaching some qualifying standard, for example length of services

. Harmonization means the reduction of differences in the pay structure and other employment conditions between categories of employee, usually manual and staff employees. The essence of harmonization’s the adoption of a common approach and criteria to pay and conditions for all employees. It differs from staff status in that, in the process of harmonization; some staff employees may have to accept some of the conditions of employment of manual workers.

10. Working arrangements- the degree to which management has the prerogative to determine working arrangements without reference to trade unions or employees (this includes job-based or functional flexibility)

When formulating policies in these areas, organization may be consciously or unconsciously deciding on the extent to which they want to adopt the HRM approach to employee relations

. Employee relations’ processes and outcomes

Employee relation’s processes according to Michael Armstrong (M. Armstrong 000) consist of the approaches and methods adopted by employers to deal with employees either collectively through their trade unions or individually. They will be based on the organization’s articulated or implied employee relations policies and strategies. The way in which they are developing and how they function will be influenced by, and will influence, the employee relations’ climate, the concept of which is examined.

Industrial relations processes, that is those aspects of employee relations that are concerned with the dealings between employers and trade unions, consist of;

1. Approaches to recognizing or de-recognizing trade unions;

. Formal methods of collective bargaining;

. Partnership as an approach to employee relations;

4. The informal day to day contacts on employment issues that take place in the workplace between management and trade union representatives or officials;

5. Features of the industrial relations scene such as union membership in the workplace, the check off and strikes.

The outcomes of these processes are various forms of procedural and substantive agreements and employment procedures, including harmonization of terms and conditions, and the approaches used by organizations to manage with and without trade unions.

. The role of Trade Unions

Trade unions have been view as

1. Collective employee organizations established to protect employees from arbitrary actions by employers in matters of pay and working conditions.

. As promoters of the legitimate interests of people at work. In practice, they have also played an important role in the political life of many countries, and, to a lesser extent, in its social affairs. As will all organization providing a service to the community, the ability of trade unions to exercise power and influence over users of their service depends on the relative demand for tat service. Thus, when demand for skilled labor in economy is high, trade unions are in a relatively powerful position to negotiate on behalf of that labor. They are also able in such circumstances to employ a wide range of sanctions against employers. When demand for labor is slack and unemployment is high, trade union power to influence events becomes more limited.

.4 Disputes and Sanctions

No relationship is without their difficulties, and Employee Relations is no exception. However sound the underlying relationship between a management team and their workforce may be, there is always scope for mistakes and misunderstanding on both sides. It is prudent, therefore, to devise an agreed procedure or policy to be followed by the parties if a dispute arises.

The disagreement between an employer and employee can be devided into two categories

Collective disputes - involving issues taken up on behalf of groups of employees by their representatives. (Simply referred as disputes)

Individual disputes - involving individual employees only (referred as grievances)

Dispute procedure as practiced in Tanzania is a follows

First Stage Union representative raise issue with department/section manager

Second Stage Issue is discussed by Company Personnel Manager/and the local trade union representing worker of such sector e.g. Trade union representing Hotel and tourism sector

Third Stage Issue is discussed by the Company management and the National Trade union officers or the National Labor Tribunal

Final stage If internal stages have been exhausted, either side may seek conciliation via The National Labor Tribunal or both sides may agree to seek some form of arbitration, mediation or negotiation.

CHAPTER FOUR ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION (ADR) METHODS

There are alternative dispute resolution methods that are put in place to enable Employer and employee relation stays in harmony all the time in order to increase productivity as well as give employees satisfaction. In order to develop an organization advanced business policies should be put in places as regard dispute resolutions these policies should be written and clear so that employees understand the procedure to present their grievances and how they can be solved. There are some disputes which cannot be solved within the organization procedures hence the need for an alternative dispute resolution procedures like Arbitration, Mediation and Negotiation.

4.1 Arbitration

Arbitration is a dispute resolution process where the opposing parties select or appoint an individual called an arbitrator. Upon appointment, the Arbitrator will arrange the process to hear and consider the evidence, review arguments and afterwards will publish an award in which the items of dispute are decided. In some cases the Arbitrator can conduct the arbitration on documents evidence only. When published the Arbitrator’s decisions are final and binding on the parties. It is rare for an arbitration to be appealed to the courts. Arbitration may comprise a sole Arbitrator, or may be a panel of Arbitrators. Costs of the arbitration are disposed of in the Arbitrator’s award, unless the parties have some agreement to the contrary.

4. Mediation

Whereby under Arbitration it is the Arbitrator who decides the fate of the dispute under Mediation it is the parties concern that decides. Mediation is a dispute resolution process in which the parties freely choose to participate and any agreement reached to settle disputes is done solely by the parties, without interference. The parties select the Mediator and once selected, the Mediator will arrange the mediation process. The Mediator makes no decisions, instead he/she as a facilitator only assist the parties to understand the dispute, provide structured discussion and help the parties reach a dispute settlement agreement.

If the parties can’t reach a settlement agreement, they are free to pursue other options. The parties generally decide in advance how they will contribute to the cost of the mediation. Mediation is very important form of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), particularly if the parties wish to preserve their relationship.

Successful mediation as an alternative method of dispute resolution has the following elements

1. An Impartial third party facilitator.

The third party neutral, the mediator, is the person who makes the entire process work. As long as there is a neutral facilitator. The parties can trusst that they have some safety and are not being abused by an interested party. All of these programs work because the mediator is in them is known to either be neutral or supportive of the parties and not an involved party.

Thus the first thing that makes a process one of mediation (and not something else) is a third party who facilitates - aids the parties in a neutral fashion to find the parties own best interest.

. A third party who protects the integrity of the proceedings

Usually this means that the facilitator or mediator protect the confidentiality of the proceedings. Thus, not only does the mediator not take sides against any party to the mediation, the mediator does not usurp the parties’ rights to disclose, or not disclose information. The mediator preserves the integrity of the proceedings in all ways.

Generally this means things - such as there are no records kept by the mediator. When there are no record, it becomes much harder to breach confidentiality or to try to use the mediator to prove or force a particular point not finalized in the parties agreement. In fact, some ADR groups and centers require the parties to take all notes on provided paper and then take and destroy even the notes after each session.

Confidentiality also means that the facilitator is not subject to subpoena and thus cannot be made a witness. Without notes or the facilitator, the only method to breach confidentiality is the testimony of an interested party who is usually bound by law (and thus subject to being quashed) not to disclose more than is agreed.

. Good faith from the participants

Good faith includes not only entering into the ADR method with the intent to work towards a resolution, it also includes not using the process for outside purposes. Thus there are rules that provide for no service of process during ADR, and for similar bars to the abuse of the mediation process by attorney and non-attorneys alike.

What makes all of the proceedings mediation is that the parties are in the process to seek solutions rather than for an ulterior purpose (e.g. to abuse the other party by use of the process). Both the behavior and integrity of the neutral are important in creating, and preserving good faith.

4. The presence of the parties

Those with full authority to act for the parties must attend so that the parties can work toward resolution. If the decision makers do not attend the process becomes something other than mediation.

All parties necessary to resolve the problems should interact with the mediator. In a family dispute, if a party always checks with his parents before acting, the parents should attend (and may need a referral to additional counseling). In a labor matter, if a company chief executive checks with the majority shareholder, the majority shareholder should attend.

It is the parties who are being resolved as much as it is the problem that is being settled.

5. An appropriate site or venue

Generally this means a neutral site that is conducive to the process. It must mean a place where neutrality, confidentiality and inclusiveness may be obtained. The place is some times as important as the persons and is a part of the process often overlooked.

4. Negotiation

Negotiation is a less structured form of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). The facilitator’s role is to keep the parties talking and bargaining. The parties may be individual or teams. The facilitator keeps record of party positions, and points of agreement they reach as discussions proceed.

The process can be lengthy, as in labor or sports negotiation. The facilitator will prepare a memorandum of agreement by inserting a condition that will be binding. The parties generally share equally in cost. On any matters unresolved, the parties are free to pursue other options.

CHAPTER FIVE FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

Advanced business policies are very important in setting a clear path for the development of organization, this is be because if the policies are clear the employer, employee and other interested parties to the business will know in advance what will happen if a certain situation arises. It is important that policies are set and made transparent so that people will be able to predict the outcome of a certain situation.

In this paper policies regarding industrial relation/ employee relation have been discussed in particular policies regarding arbitration, mediation and negotiation. These policies or procedures are very important in bringing about harmony and solving industrial disputes so as to bring about a good working environment. Employers and Employees have to sit down together and come up with policies that will guide them as to when they have to go for an alternative dispute resolution method. However internal dispute resolution through usual work procedure and trade union are more advisable. Only when these methods have been found unworkable then alternative dispute resolution methods should be applied.

Good leadership is the key to Organization development. A good leader will involve the workers in formulating the organization policy that will be a guide to all the operation of the organization. In organization development it is important that the leader make sure that conflict or disputes are resolved at a very early stage of their devolvement. When disputes are left to grow they divide the organization and therefore work efficiency is reduced and if left to grow out of proportion they may lead to the collapse of the organization. Disputes are the cause for Strikes, Sit-ins and demonstrations. When workers strike many activities of the organization are at a stand still. If it is a production organization production of product is stopped hence causing a lot of inconvenience to the consumers. This can cause consumers to shift to another product and cause the organization that has been in strike once the strike has been settled down to drop in business sales, which may lead to insolvency.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bateman Snell (1) Management Building Competitive Advantage United States Irwin McGraw-Hill

. Curtis E. Tate, Marilyn L. Taylor (18) Business Policy Administrative, Strategic, and Constituency Issues Dallas Texas Business Publication, Inc

. Devendra Thekur (18) Business Policy Principles and Practice India

4. G.A.Cole (00) Personnel and Human Resource Management London Book Power/ELST

5. Internet resource Various papers and documents

6. Michael Armstrong (000) Human Resource Management Practice Trowbridge, Wiltshire Redwood Books

7. Mike Leat (001) Exploring Employee Relations Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford Butter worth Heinemann

Please note that this sample paper on Advanced Business Policy, OD and ADR is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Advanced Business Policy, OD and ADR, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Advanced Business Policy, OD and ADR will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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